Techniques

Printed circuit board fabrication

Homebrew

• Toner Transfer -- This method involves laser printing your PCB design onto paper, then transferring toner onto copper-clad board.
• Photoetching -- Exposure of PCB designs onto photosensitized copper-clad board.
• Chemical Etchants

Commercial PCB fabrication

• Submitting PCB's for fabrication -- Common processes for submitting PCB's for fabrication.
• PCB Manufacturers

Circuit construction (non PCB)

• Solderless protoboard (Wikipedia:Breadboard) (a simple example with a small microcontroller)
• Point-to-point (Wikipedia:Point-to-point construction)
• Wirewrap (Wikipedia:Wire Wrap)
• Dead bug style -- and a similar method, "A Modern Breadboarding Technology: Insulating Pads Soldered to a Ground Plane"
• Manhattan style

["Construction Ideas"] has nice photographs of the above circuit construction techniques.

• "stripboard" : Wikipedia:stripboard. VeeCAD : CAD for stripboard (Veroboard) layout -- can import netlists in Orcad or Protel format. Examples of stripboard circuits: RepRap motor controller with Microchip PIC16F628A for RepRap; Veroboard Layout for Electronic Door Release; LED dice using PIC12F675; "How To Draw Veroboard Layouts" by Ron J.; "A Beginner's Guide To Building Circuits Using Veroboard" by Andy Collinson.

Soldering techniques

• Basic soldering -- How to use a soldering iron.
• Surface Mount
  • Skillet reflow
  • Toaster oven reflow
  • Hot air soldering
• Rework -- Techniques for fixing mistakes, or for adding new features to a board that almost does what you want.
  • official NASA recommendations for adding discrete wiring ("jumper wires") to PCBs

(Have you seen this CNC solder paste/pick n place ?)

Software design tools

Some people still build circuits without ever using any software tools. For complicated circuits, software design tools can save a lot of time.

Here we list "suites" that combine schematic capture, component editor for the components used in schematic capture, circuit simulation, PCB layout, autorouter, and footprint editor for the footprints used in PCB layout. (Is there another place for listing stand-alone tools such as a switching power supply "wizard" and a RF analysis tool?)

Quite often people mix-and-match tools -- using a schematic capture from one suite to generate pretty schematics and a netlist, then importing the netlist a third party Specctra autorouter, then importing the result into a PCB layout program from another suite for the final manual clean-up and design rule checking.

In no particular order:

Name	Platform	License	AutoRouter	Comments
gEDA	Linux, *BSD	Free,OSS	Ar	gEDA wiki includes schematic and PCB for makeing gerbers etc...
McCAD EDS Lite	Pl	Free demo max 200pin	Ar	Free demo version available for download, 200 pin limit
McCAD EDS SE		"free"		Free book, "Apple I Replica Creation". Supports 750 pins, 11"x17" sheet size, 6-8 data layers. <tangent>(any useful tips in this book for those who want to build a CPU from scratch?) <reply>No, there are not. The book is more entry-level. - Tom Owad</reply></tangent>
FreePCB	Win32	Free, OSS	Ar	PCB Design Software
TinyCAD	Win32	Free,OSS	Ar	Schematic Drawing Software
KiCad	Win32,Linux,*BSD	Free,OSS	Ar	http://www.lis.inpg.fr/realise_au_lis/kicad/ EDA suite
Express PCB	Pl	Free	Ar
Protel DXP	Pl	Li	Ar	independent Protel users FAQ
Eagle Eagle Links	Win32,Linux	Limited demo	Ar	( Russ Hensel says>> ) I have been kicking around as a hobbyist for a while and Eagle seems to be the main hobbyist circuit/pcb cad program. It supports schematics and board layout with an auto-router. The free version can easily support 2 dual op amps with wide traces and a one sided board. There is quite a lot of info on the Internet and many projects supply eagle files. There is also a $125 non profit version supporting larger boards. It then gets expensive. Eagle is not really easy to learn: cut for it would be copy in almost any other program. It probably deserves a page or more of its own. ( << end RH ) http://cadsoft.de/ Eagle tutorial from Sparkfun Eagle tutorial (makezine)
DipTrace	Pl	Freeware available	Ar	250-pin Freeware or Purchase more advanced versions
WinQcad	Pl	Free demo	Ar	Demo with max 499 pins available for download
Rimu Schematic and Rimu PCB	Pl	Li	Ar	???
SuperCAD and SuperPCB	Pl	Li	Ar
www.autotraxeda.com	Pl	Li	Ar	AUTOTraxEDA. Holy poop! It does EVERYTHING for NOTHING (ed: not anymore). It won't run on *nix or anything less than NT (nope, it don't work on '98) but other than that, it appears to be a complete violation of the TANSTAAFL rules. {ed: yep... now it costs.} And the user forums have shown a certain lack of satisfaction with the program.
www.expresspcb.com	Pl	Li	Ar	The ExpressPCB Windows layout software makes designing PC boards simple for the beginner and efficient for the professional. Its standard Windows user interface uses all the familiar commands such as copy, cut, paste & dragging. PC board manufacturing service delivers boards in 3 business days or less. Often orders for two boards cost under $100. They keep changeing the program and old files may not work (due to increased limitations on the placement of objects) in the new versions without some rework. See TCI which is just about the same and prints or outputs to Gerber / Excellon files.
www.holophase.com/dleval.htm	Pl	Li	Ar	Circad's DOS layout Demo is free for non-commercial use.
www.geda.seul.org/	Pl	Li	Ar	xNIX Electronic Design Automation project has Schematic capture with PCB CAD.
www.vutrax.co.uk/pricing.htm	Pl	Li	Ar	Vutrax for Windows - free for under 256 component pins
www.interactiv.com	Pl	Li	Ar	Electronic Workbench * ( Interactive Image Technologies Ltd.) $ 400 for 500 pins. Includes schematic capture and simulation, virtual instruments , and PCB layout. Said to be stable.
Harry Eaton's PCB	Pl	Free,GPL	Ar	Absolutely free (GPL'ed) PCB program which can work under any POSIX compliant operating system (eg. Linux) and can produce Gerber or PostScript files.
www.labcenter.co.uk/	Pl	Li	Ar	They have a lite version "pic bundle" aprx. $149.00 includes schematic/simulation/pcb layout. You can write pic code for your pic schematic design and simulate. Even multi-pic,keypad,lcd display (really cool). Right now it can only simulate PIC1683/1684 (lite version limited to 1k program code), but it really works. They are working on more pic modules now. Will not produce Gerber/Excellion drill files only dxf, bmp, hpgl, tiff.
www.ivex.com/	Pl	Li	Ar	Winboard PCB Layout
www.illuminated.com.au/	Pl	Li	Ar	Draftcad
www.winqcad.com/	Pl	Li	Ar	MicroCad

(Some of this information in this table came from the list of software design tools at the Massmind).

Is there any way to objectively compare these tools? How well did they do at the PCB Top Gun contest ?

Checklist for "The flow of PCB fabrication/PCB 製作流程" using Software Design Tool

• Format and shape of PCB are conformed./底板的幾何圖形和尺寸確認
• Via size and location are conformed./定位和開孔尺寸確認
• Fixed location item are placed on suitable place./對有所要求之硬件放置的明白確認
• A one-first PCB silk layout is made./做一張1:1的PCB白油圖
• All item get enough clearance between them./所有硬件排放後檢查相鄰是否過於緊貼
• All vias get enough size to install them components./所有孔徑是否符合要求
• Make sure no worng footprint is created./肯定了腳銲盤無錯誤
• PCB is drew./完成了PCB
• Netlist is ran and got a no error result./執行netlist指令直無錯誤
• DRC is ran and got a no error result./執行DRC直至無錯誤
• Location of item is reasonable./模擬實物放置是否合理
• All items are put on to a hard copy of PCB./放置所有零件在影印本的PCB上
• Overall is checked./全面檢查確認無誤

And then the Gerbers are sent to a PCB Manufacturers.

embedded system programming and testing

• Many systems use JTAG for programming and testing. (Such as Atmel AVR embedded systems]).
• Other systems use some other kind of in-circuit programming.
• Some people use bootloaders to make re-programming a little quicker.

• Many people use an oscilloscope (o'scope). Keith has made a list of "PC USB logic analyzers that cost under $1000.", some of which can be used as an o'scope. Should we make a table dedicated to low-cost o'scopes here?

Enclosure

• The Earth Signal should short to whole metal Case
• Digital/Analog GND should separate to this Earth Signal, and should connect a Y-cap. to filter the noise between them.
• Attention: do not place near between Earth Signal and Digital/Analog GND, otherwise some spark come out, and affect your whole system.

further reading

• "Electronics Design" from Airborn gives an overview of the complete process: specification, (schematic) circuit design, layout, prototypes, firmware, pilot run, production.
• EDA electronic design automation software is a subset of CAD in general. Is there a wiki that discusses CAD in general? Until I find it, I'm going to post these tools here: "Google SketchUp is a powerful yet easy-to-learn 3D software tool" http://sketchup.google.com/ ; "Inkscape is the best tool for SVG standard vector graphics" http://wiki.inkscape.org/ ; Visual Wiki http://visualwiki.org/
• "What's All This Ground Noise Stuff, Anyhow?" by Robert A. Pease
• "What's All This Teflon Stuff, Anyhow?" by Robert A. Pease -- explains a situation using lots of metal (instead of carefully insulating everything with lots of Teflon) causes less noise. Also mentions "why am I telling you all of these details? If I design a tester with greatly improved performance to help me test a really high-performance product, why should I tell all our competitors so that anybody in the world can test their products using the improved tester? Why should I give away all of these hard-earned secrets?" and gives some very good reasons.
• sci.electronics.design: EDN: Measuring Nanoamperes discusses some ways to measure extremely small currents.
• yahoo.com/group/Homebrew_PCBs
• electricstuff.co.uk/pcbs
• fullnet.com/~tomg/gooteepc
• The notion that through-hole soldering is easier than soldering surface-mount devices is, and always has been, a myth.

Environmental Issues

The metals, chemicals, and polymers used in producing electronic circuits, as well as the energy consumed in producing them and the extraction (mining) processes can have significant environmental impact. The purpose of this section is to collect information that can be used to assess and/or mitigate the environmental impact. It may also suggest some projects which can be environmentally beneficial. [Note: techniques was the closest major section to incorporate this into but it might make more sens to promote this section to a fifth major section]

Energy Use, Global Warming Gasses

Embodied Energy/CO2

With the climate change crisis and peak oil, energy consumption becomes an important issue. Embodied CO2 includes the effects of emboddied energy plus other CO2 sources. An good source for information on how much energy is consumed and CO2 produced in making a variety of materials is the ICE [1] database. You have to request a free copy be sent via email. The production of metals and plastics releases many times their weight in greenhouse gases.

Energy consumption by Electronic Devices

Standby modes, switching supplies, etc.

Transportation

Raw materials, electronic components, bare PCBs, finished products, and end-of-life products being recycled get transported very long distances.

Electronics as energy saving devices

Some electronics are used to save energy. Fluorescent ballasts, Photovoltaics, power inverters, charge controllers, some motor controls, solar trackers, LED lighting, setback thermostats, motion sensor controls and timers, blind controllers, etc. In some cases, computers are used for telecommuting.

RoHS/lead-free

The transition to RoHS/lead-free processes has cost the industry a large amount of money and creates problems for hobbyists. When you consider the environmental impact of lead free solders (for example, silver mining is highly polluting), and the greater amount of non-renewable resources used, and the shorter lifespan of the electronic circuits, the whole lead free movement may be yet another political boondoggle. [2]

John Barnes, electronics text book author, and author of the Pushback site:

It is widely accepted in the Engineering community that the recent ban of lead in solders for use in electronics in Europe is not only erroneous, but will actually lead to a worsening situation on the environment with the replacements being in general use from July ’06 having a GREATER environmental impact. [3]

To date I have collected over 230 books and well over 11,100 other documents on these and closely-related subjects, going clear back to 1851. My collection now fills one-and-a-half bookcases and three 5-drawer file cabinets. [4]

Based on my research, and helping clients develop RoHS-compliant electronic products, I believe that: If you buy a lead-free RoHS-compliant electronic device-- and if it works when you first turn it on-- it should be safe and fully-functional for at least one year. If you are lucky, it may last a couple of years longer... versus the 20+ years use that we can easily get out of many lead-based electronic products. [5]

[6]

A huge problem with the RoHS laws is the sheer nitpicky nature of the regulations and the beaurocracy that enforces them. It doesn't matter if you reduce the lead content a thousand fold relative to a lead solder board, which would put it well within the 0.1% lead limit. The product is reduced to homogeneous parts each one of which must individually meet the regulations. One stray microscopic lead solder ball might be ok if it is absorbed into a joint where it is becomes part of a larger homogeneous component but not if it contaminates an inspection sticker or gets trapped in the flux between traces. Maybe widespread competent recycling of electronics is a better approach. Not shipping it off to other countries or using prison labor to disassemble it under unsafe and environmentally harmful ways; there are some horror stories of how electronics is recycled now.

Mixing lead containing and lead free components

Many lead-free components are compatible with lead solder processes. leadframe based components, such as QFPs, SOICs, and SOPs with gull wing leads, are generally compatible since the finish on the part leads contributes a small amount of material to the finished joint. However, components such as BGAs which come with lead-free solder balls are not compatible with lead processes. [7] Also, leadless parts are exposed to higher stresses and are more susceptible to any affect from mixed metallurgy. Check with each manufacturer as lead finishes may vary.

[edit]

Materials, Chemicals, and Processes used

Etchants

Ferric Chloride poured down the drain will eat pipes and copper is toxic. Although your sewage plant may not be happy about ferric chloride in the sewage (and it may be illegal) , they can probably at least deal with it better than many other chemicals since Ferric Chloride is used at sewage treatment plants to remove copper. Ferric Chloride etchant can be neutralized into iron oxide (rust), copper, and salt by using iron (nails, etc) to use up all the etchant and then add washing soda and evaporating and can then be landfilled. Considering the value and toxicity of copper, it would be nice to see this improved on so that the copper can be reclaimed.

Another source [8] suggests adding washing soda before pouring down the drain. Another source [9] suggests baking soda.

MSDS

Etching can be improved, and the lifetime of the etchant before it needs disposal, using citric acid [10]

Solder

See RoHS/lead free section above. Solder paste should be refrigerated (embodied energy) and has a limited lifetime. One problem with expired solder is absorbed water which can lead to spatter and voids in solder joints. What to do with expired solder paste? It should still be ok for manually tinning leads and large copper areas. It may be possible to add it to a wave solder bath using the same alloy.

Tape & Reel, JEDEC matrix trays, other component packaging

JEDEC matrix trays can be reused or recycled. Resistors tend to come in paper (cardboard) tape, which can be recycled, plus a cover tape. Capacitors, transistors, and IC's often come in formed plastic tape with a plastic cover tape.

Plating =

Hot Air Solder Levelling

Not technically a plating process, but many of the alternatives are. Contains Lead (see RoHS/lead free section).

Copper

Sulfur dioxide produced in making copper is equivalent to 1/4 the sulfur dioxide emisions of all industrial nations combined. 1kg of copper requires excavating 127kg of ore and 136kg of other rock and the equivalent of 275 liters of petoleum was consumed. [11] Copper is somewhat toxic. And it is a scarce and valuable resource. Copper prices are high enough that people steel copper wiring and pipes out of unoccupied buildings (destroying the buildings in the process). Copper can be recovered from PCB etchant by electrolysis. [12] It also saves on etchant replacement and disposal. They spent 55,000 English Pounds to set it up but it paid for itself in two years. This may be possible to do on a smaller scale. Copper used on printed circuit boards is usually produced by electrodepositing copper onto a rotating drum (Printed Circuits Handbook); this particular process, though often done by the panel manufacturer and not the PCB fab, appears to be compatible with reclaimed copper (no need to remelt it). It appears that electrodes used in the reclamation process can be transfered to the plating bath for panel plating, pattern plating, or making electrodeposited foil sheets, provided the baths are kept well filtered. In a double sided circuit board, most of the copper on the board is electroplated onto the board (starting with a thin foil), thus plating the holes.

Tanatalum

"Other concerns we have center on a material necessary for wireless technology, called Tantalum. Tantalum is a rare earth metal that is only found in a few places. Because of growing demand caused by the popularization of cell phone, laptop and wifi use, tantalum mining has become a lucrative business in areas that sometimes have delicate ecosystems and unbalanced economies. This led to wars, exploitation and environmental havoc in the Congo³. That situation has been mostly addressed through policing and international embargoes4, but that is just one example of how consumer electronics can be linked directly to environmental and social problems.5" [13]

PVC

PVC is used as insulation for wires. Flexible Vinyl contains plasticizers which can be toxic and are banned in some countries. Hard Vinyl is safer. There are other plastics, such as LDPE, which do not require plasticizers for flexibility and materials such as silicone rubber which make superior insulation.

Teflon

Used as a PCB substrate, dialectric, wire insulation, and as a non-stick coating on cookware. Teflon wire releases nerve gas when burned. Teflon cookware (which may be used in the hot plate or toaster oven methods of reflow soldering) is alleged to release nerve gas fumes that will kill pet birds even at normal cooking temperatures.

Silicone Rubber and other Silicones

Silicon is an abundant natural resource. Silicone Rubber has a 50 year life span, which makes it good for durable goods. It is considered by some to be more environmentally benign than many other polymer resins due to its durability, low toxicity, manufacturing process, being chemically inert, and abundant raw materials. Another Silicone, Silicone gel, was vindicated as a cause of health problems associated with breast implants. Silicone rubber is one of the few materials considered safe enough for medical implants. It is an excellent high voltage insulator and withstands high temperatures. When used in contact with electrical circuits, peroxide curing vs. acetic acid (vinegar) curing silicone should be used due to the corrosive nature of acetic acid. Silicone caulk may be thinned to make it suitable for painting or dip coating, when the proper forms of the resin are not available, using Xylene (a hazardous material) or pourable silicones or other silicones without thixotropic additives may be used, though these are expensive in small quantities. Silicone rubber may be used as an adhesive (it must be cut to remove it). It may be used as a potting material. Silicone oil is used as a lubricant; purists prefer pure silicone lubricants (such as CRC 100% silicone) over products such as WD-40 which mix it with petroleum based oils; do not use it on a surface you intent to paint. Paint does not adhere to silicone rubber, either. "Paintable" silicone rubber caulk appears to lack the thixotropic additive and is thin enough to spread with a paint brush, though probably not thin enough for dipping or pouring. Liquid silicone may be used as a non-toxic solvent. Availible in electrically conductive varieties. Silicone is used to make flexible molds and hobby moldmaking suppliers are a source of small quantities of different types of silicone rubbers. Silicone rubber will withstand reflow soldering temperatures; it could be used to adhere components to a board before soldering, however it will not let go when you attempt to desolder the parts. [14]

Wood

Can be used for breadboarding leaded components, enclosures, etc. Low embodied energy/CO2.

Panel Plating vs Pattern Plating

[15]

Recycling =

ReHDPE

Recycled polyethylene lumber (ReHDPE) (Not the kind with wood fillers), seems to machine well, is cheaper than delrin and other plastics. Wood fillers in the sort found at Lowes Hardware stores may absorb water. At least I think the sample (from teksupply) I saw was ReHDPE; they don't say but similar products seem to be ReHDPE. There may be voids. 2x4 material (many sizes available) is about $3 per foot. [16] [17] [18] May be useful for electronics enclosures and other plastic parts. HDPE has a lower embodied energy than most plastics.

Obsolescence

The enviromental impacts of electronic devices are greatly exacerbated by obsolescence (or worse planned obsolescence), limited lifetimes, and poor repairability (including lack of technical documentation), and by often being cheaper to replace than repair.

Single Function vs. Multifunction devices

Devices which perform many functions, and thus replace many devices, may reduce environmental impact. Do you need a computer, TV, stereo, CD player, DVD player, game console, DVR, VHS/DVD recorder or can you use one device (the computer) for all those functions? Do you need separate PDA, GPS receiver, digital camera, camcorder, cell phone, DECT cordless phone, voice recorder, MP3 player, and ebook reader or can those be combined into a single portable device that functions better than the individual devices?

= semiconductors

The embodied energy in a Monocrystalline solar panel, 230Kg CO2/square meter might be a some indication, though that is for the module and not just the cell and it is based on a square meter rather than by weight as most things are, but it seems rather high (they do, however, repay that energy in about 18 months to 7 years). 60% of the embodied energy is in the silicon wafers. Pound for pound, semiconductors are probably an environmental nightmare, though very little material is actually used in the final product. Unfortunately, a 2g chip (32MB DRAM) requires 1.7kg of materials (72g of chemcials, 1600 grams of fossil fuels, and 700 grams of elemental gas) and uses 32000g (32 liters) of water. A lot of this energy is too heat the materials to 1000 degrees Celsius (how about a large concentrating solar collector to help out here?).

Resistors

The process of making resistors generally involves baking (embodied energy/CO2); probably twice, once to make the ceramic subtrate and once for the resistive coating; however, this is probably not a major concern as ceramics have a fairly low embodied CO2.

Computers

Computers have a very large environmental impact and may be indicative of the environmental impact of electronic devices in general. For a computer, the emboddied energy is about twice what it will consume over a three year life span.

For a desktop computer (not counting monitor, etc): 6050g steel, 670g copper, 440g Aluminum, 650g plastics, 1040g Epoxy, 47g Tin, 27g Lead, 18g Nickel, 1.4g Silver, 0.35g gold, and 96 grams misc for a total of 9040g. A 17" CRT monitor: 6817g Glass, 2830g Steel, 700g Copper, 480g Ferrite, 240g Aluminum, 3530g Plastics, 140g Epoxy, 20g Tin, 593g Lead, 1.24g Silver, 0.31g Gold, and 98g of other materials. "Other" is probably largely the fiberglass in the PCBs and the silicon wafers. [19]